Teaching Grammar

Introduction

Teaching Grammar

Grammar is central to the teaching and learning of languages. It is also one of the more difficult aspects of language to teach well. Many people, including language teachers, hear the word "grammar" and think of a fixed set of word forms and rules of usage. They associate "good" grammar with the prestige forms of the language, such as those used in writing and in formal oral presentations, and "bad" or "no" grammar with the language used in everyday conversation or used by speakers of non prestige forms.

Language teachers who adopt this definition focus on grammar as a set of forms and rules. They teach grammar by explaining the forms and rules and then drilling students on them. This results in bored, disaffected students who can produce correct forms on exercises and tests, but consistently make errors when they try to use the language in context.

Other language teachers, influenced by recent theoretical work on the difference between language learning and language acquisition, tend not to teach grammar at all. Believing that children acquire their first language without overt grammar instruction, they expect students to learn their second language the same way. They assume that students will absorb grammar rules as they hear, read, and use the language in communication activities. This approach does not allow students to use one of the major tools they have as learners: their active understanding of what grammar is and how it works in the language they already know.

The communicative competence model balances these extremes. The model recognizes that overt grammar instruction helps students acquire the language more efficiently, but it incorporates grammar teaching and learning into the larger context of teaching students to use the language. Instructors using this model teach students the grammar they need to know to accomplish defined communication tasks.

The Section Contents of Grammar

1.       Goals and Techniques for Teaching Grammar

2.      Strategies for Learning Grammar

3.      Developing Grammar Activities

4.      Using Textbook Grammar Activities

5.      Assessing Grammar Proficiency 

1.      Goals and Techniques for Teaching Grammar

The goal of grammar instruction is to enable students to carry out their communication purposes. This goal has three implications:

a.       Students need overt instruction that connects grammar points with larger communication contexts.

b.      Students do not need to master every aspect of each grammar point, only those that are relevant to the immediate communication task.

c.       Error correction is not always the instructor's first responsibility.

a.     Overt Grammar Instruction

Adult students appreciate and benefit from direct instruction that allows them to apply critical thinking skills to language learning. Instructors can take advantage of this by providing explanations that give students a descriptive understanding (declarative knowledge) of each point of grammar.

o    Teach the grammar point in the target language or the students' first language or both. The goal is to facilitate understanding.

o    Limit the time you devote to grammar explanations to 10 minutes, especially for lower level students whose ability to sustain attention can be limited.

o    Present grammar points in written and oral ways to address the needs of students with different learning styles.

An important part of grammar instruction is providing examples. Teachers need to plan their examples carefully around two basic principles:

·         Be sure the examples are accurate and appropriate. They must present the language appropriately, be culturally appropriate for the setting in which they are used, and be to the point of the lesson.

·         Use the examples as teaching tools. Focus examples on a particular theme or topic so that students have more contact with specific information and vocabulary.

b.     Relevance of Grammar Instruction

In the communicative competence model, the purpose of learning grammar is to learn the language of which the grammar is a part. Instructors therefore teach grammar forms and structures in relation to meaning and use for the specific communication tasks that students need to complete.

Compare the traditional model and the communicative competence model for teaching the English past tense:

Traditional: grammar for grammar's sake

·         Teach the regular -ed form with its two pronunciation variants

·         Teach the doubling rule for verbs that end in d (for example, wed-wedded)

·         Hand out a list of irregular verbs that students must memorize

·         Do pattern practice drills for -ed

·         Do substitution drills for irregular verbs

Communicative competence: grammar for communication's sake

·         Distribute two short narratives about recent experiences or events, each one to half of the class

·         Teach the regular -ed form, using verbs that occur in the texts as examples. Teach the pronunciation and doubling rules if those forms occur in the texts.

·         Teach the irregular verbs that occur in the texts.

·         Students read the narratives, ask questions about points they don't understand.

·         Students work in pairs in which one member has read Story A and the other Story B. Students interview one another; using the information from the interview, they then write up or orally repeat the story they have not read.

c.      Error Correction

At all proficiency levels, learners produce language that is not exactly the language used by native speakers. Some of the differences are grammatical, while others involve vocabulary selection and mistakes in the selection of language appropriate for different contexts.

In responding to student communication, teachers need to be careful not to focus on error correction to the detriment of communication and confidence building. Teachers need to let students know when they are making errors so that they can work on improving. Teachers also need to build students' confidence in their ability to use the language by focusing on the content of their communication rather than the grammatical form.

Teachers can use error correction to support language acquisition, and avoid using it in ways that undermine students' desire to communicate in the language, by taking cues from context.

·         When students are doing structured output activities that focus on development of new language skills, use error correction to guide them.

Example: 

o   Student (in class): I buy a new car yesterday. 

o   Teacher: You bought a new car yesterday. Remember, the past tense of buy is bought.

·         When students are engaged in communicative activities, correct errors only if they interfere with comprehensibility. Respond using correct forms, but without stressing them.

Example: 

o   Student (greeting teacher) : I buy a new car yesterday! 

o   Teacher: You bought a new car? That's exciting! What kind?

2.     Strategies for Learning Grammar

Language teachers and language learners are often frustrated by the disconnect between knowing the rules of grammar and being able to apply those rules automatically in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. This disconnect reflects a separation between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge.

·         Declarative knowledge is knowledge about something. Declarative knowledge enables a student to describe a rule of grammar and apply it in pattern practice drills.

·         Procedural knowledge is knowledge of how to do something. Procedural knowledge enables a student to apply a rule of grammar in communication.

For example, declarative knowledge is what you have when you read and understand the instructions for programming the DVD player. Procedural knowledge is what you demonstrate when you program the DVD player.

Procedural knowledge does not translate automatically into declarative knowledge; many native speakers can use their language clearly and correctly without being able to state the rules of its grammar. Likewise, declarative knowledge does not translate automatically into procedural knowledge; students may be able to state a grammar rule, but consistently fail to apply the rule when speaking or writing.

To address the declarative knowledge/procedural knowledge dichotomy, teachers and students can apply several strategies.

a.      

a.     Relate Knowledge Needs To Learning Goals.

Identify the relationship of declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge to student goals for learning the language. Students who plan to use the language exclusively for reading journal articles need to focus more on the declarative knowledge of grammar and discourse structures that will help them understand those texts. Students who plan to live in-country need to focus more on the procedural knowledge that will help them manage day to day oral and written interactions.

b.     Apply Higher Order Thinking Skills.

Recognize that development of declarative knowledge can accelerate development of procedural knowledge. Teaching students how the language works and giving them opportunities to compare it with other languages they know allows them to draw on critical thinking and analytical skills. These processes can support the development of the innate understanding that characterizes procedural knowledge.

c.      Provide Plentiful, Appropriate Language Input.

Understand that students develop both procedural and declarative knowledge on the basis of the input they receive. This input includes both finely tuned input that requires students to pay attention to the relationships among form, meaning, and use for a specific grammar rule, and roughly tuned input that allows students to encounter the grammar rule in a variety of contexts. (For more on input, see Teaching Goals and Methods.)

d.     Use Predicting Skills.

Discourse analyst H. Douglas Brown has demonstrated that different communication types can be characterized by the clusters of linguistic features that are common to those types. Verb tense and aspect, sentence length and structure, and larger discourse patterns all may contribute to the distinctive profile of a given communication type.

For example, a history textbook and a newspaper article in English both use past tense verbs almost exclusively. However, the newspaper article will use short sentences and a discourse pattern that alternates between subjects or perspectives. The history textbook will use complex sentences and will follow a timeline in its discourse structure. Awareness of these features allows students to anticipate the forms and structures they will encounter in a given communication task.

e.     Limit expectations for drills.

·Mechanical drills in which students substitute pronouns for nouns or alternate the person, number, or tense of verbs can help students memorize irregular forms and challenging structures. However, students do not develop the ability to use grammar correctly in oral and written interactions by doing mechanical drills, because these drills separate form from meaning and use. The content of the prompt and the response is set in advance; the student only has to supply the correct grammatical form, and can do that without really needing to understand or communicate anything. The main lesson that students learn from doing these drills is: Grammar is boring.

·Communicative drills encourage students to connect form, meaning, and use because multiple correct responses are possible. In communicative drills, students respond to a prompt using the grammar point under consideration, but providing their own content. For example, to practice questions and answers in the past tense in English, teacher and students can ask and answer questions about activities the previous evening. The drill is communicative because none of the content is set in advance. 

We’ve created this page to provide resources, lesson, and ideas on teaching grammar. You’ll find loads of printable materials for classroom use. We also have a discussion forum where you can share your lesson ideas.

Lesson :

Conditionals:

·         Unreal Conditionals Handout – A classroom handout with examples, explains second and third conditional sentences.

·         Find your partner: second conditional – A matching activity with direction.

·         Question cards : unreal conditional – A set of conditional questions, (if you wanted suggestions on how to use cards sets, you would look at ideas for using conversation card sets.)

·         Scramble sentences : unreal conditionals – see ideas for using scrambled sentences for activity suggestions.

Modals

·         Find your partner : modals – A activity for modals of inference, include direction.

·         Question Cards : modals – A set of question using present and past time modals. For suggestion on how to use card set, you might get some ideas from ideas for using conversation card set.

Noun Class

·         Recognizing noun clauses in song – a printable worksheet for classroom use, advanced students find the noun clauses in the lyrics to some popular alternative song. You must recommend giving one copy to each pair of students and asking them to work together.

·         Answer key for recognizing noun clauses in song – my first time through the lyrics. You think you found 15 noun clauses. Needless to say. You had missed some. Like five, I think assuming I’m still not missing any, save yourself the surprise of discovering the noun clauses during class : print the answer key.

·         Scrambled sentences : Noun Clauses – see ideas for using scrambled sentences for activity suggestions.

·         Error correction : noun clauses – ten sentences for error correction. (only sentence number five is correct.)

Nouns : Count and Non – count

·         Food quantifiers – this is an interactive crossword puzzle you can print and use in class. Low level.

·         Non – count nouns and quantifiers – a matching activity to review advanced-level non-count nouns quantifiers (classroom handout).

·         Tic tac toe : irregular plurals – advanced-level tic tac toe game boards. Students can place an “X” or “O” in the square only when they give the correct plurals from of the word.

·         A card game to review count / non count nouns and irregular plurals- advanced-level group activity with direction.

Passive Voice

·         A passive voice race game – a competitive team race game for high intermediate and advanced learner, include direction.

Simple past and past progressive

·         Scramble sentences : simple past and past progressive – see ideas for using scrambled sentences for activity suggestions.

Tense Review

·         Sentences match : tense review – you can use this one to pair students or as a small group activity.

3.     Developing Grammar Activities

Many courses and textbooks, especially those designed for lower proficiency levels, use a specified sequence of grammatical topics as their organizing principle. When this is the case, classroom activities need to reflect the grammar point that is being introduced or reviewed. By contrast, when a course curriculum follows a topic sequence, grammar points can be addressed as they come up.

In both cases, instructors can use the Larsen-Freeman pie chart as a guide for developing activities.

For curricula that introduce grammatical forms in a specified sequence, instructors need to develop activities that relate form to meaning and use.

·         Describe the grammar point, including form, meaning, and use, and give examples (structured input)

·         Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills (structured output)

·         Have students do a communicative task that provides opportunities to use the grammar point (communicative output)

For curricula that follow a sequence of topics, instructors need to develop activities that relate the topical discourse (use) to meaning and form.

·         Provide oral or written input (audiotape, reading selection) that addresses the topic (structured input)

·         Review the point of grammar, using examples from the material (structured input)

·         Ask students to practice the grammar point in communicative drills that focus on the topic (structured output)

·         Have students do a communicative task on the topic (communicative output)

See Teaching Goals and Methods for definitions of input and output. See Planning a Lesson for an example of a lesson that incorporates a grammar point into a larger communication task.

When instructors have the opportunity to develop part or all of the course curriculum, they can develop a series of contexts based on the real world tasks that students will need to perform using the language, and then teach grammar and vocabulary in relation to those contexts.

For example, students who plan to travel will need to understand public address announcements in airports and train stations. Instructors can use audio taped simulations to provide input; teach the grammatical forms that typically occur in such announcements; and then have students practice by asking and answering questions about what was announced.

4.     Using Textbook Grammar Activities

Textbooks usually provide one or more of the following three types of grammar exercises.

·         Mechanical drills: Each prompt has only one correct response, and students can complete the exercise without attending to meaning. For example:
George waited for the bus this morning. He will wait for the bus tomorrow morning, too.

·         Meaningful drills: Each prompt has only one correct response, and students must attend to meaning to complete the exercise. For example:
Where are George’s papers? They are in his notebook. (Students must understand the meaning of the question in order to answer, but only one correct answer is possible because they all know where George’s papers are.)

·         Communicative drills, described in Strategies for Learning Grammar

To use textbook grammar exercises effectively, instructors need to recognize which type they are, devote the appropriate amount of time to them, and supplement them as needed.

            I.            Recognizing Types

Before the teaching term begins, inventory the textbook to see which type(s) of drills it provides. Decide which you will use in class, which you will assign as homework, and which you will skip.

            II.      Assigning Time

When deciding which textbook drills to use and how much time to allot to them, keep their relative value in mind.

·         Mechanical drills are the least useful because they bear little resemblance to real communication. They do not require students to learn anything; they only require parroting of a pattern or rule.

·         Meaningful drills can help students develop understanding of the workings of rules of grammar because they require students to make form-meaning correlations. Their resemblance to real communication is limited by the fact that they have only one correct answer.

·      Communicative drills require students to be aware of the relationships among form, meaning, and use. In communicative drills, students test and develop their ability to use language to convey ideas and information.

     III.            Supplementing

If the textbook provides few or no meaningful and communicative drills, instructors may want to create some to substitute for mechanical drills. See Developing Grammar Activities for guidelines.

5.     Assessing Grammar Proficiency

1.      Authentic Assessment

Just as mechanical drills do not teach students the language, mechanical test questions do not assess their ability to use it in authentic ways. In order to provide authentic assessment of students’ grammar proficiency, an evaluation must reflect real-life uses of grammar in context. This means that the activity must have a purpose other than assessment and require students to demonstrate their level of grammar proficiency by completing some task.

To develop authentic assessment activities, begin with the types of tasks that students will actually need to do using the language. Assessment can then take the form of communicative drills and communicative activities like those used in the teaching process.

For example, the activity based on audiotapes of public address announcements (Developing Grammar Activities) can be converted into an assessment by having students respond orally or in writing to questions about a similar tape. In this type of assessment, the instructor uses a checklist or rubric to evaluate the student’s understanding and/or use of grammar in context. (See Assessing Learning for more on checklists and rubrics.)

2.     Mechanical Tests

Mechanical tests do serve one purpose: They motivate students to memorize. They can therefore serve as prompts to encourage memorization of irregular forms and vocabulary items. Because they test only memory capacity, not language ability, they are best used as quizzes and given relatively little weight in evaluating student performance and progress

Pragmatics and Natural and Conventional Sign in Semantics

CHAPTER 2

Language in Use

In this chapter we look more at the specific of communication, beginning with observations about non- linguistics signs and how we get meaning from them. We introduce a distinction between a sentence, a language construction, and an utterance, a particular act of speaking or writing. An utterance is typically part of a larger discourse. In spoken discourse meanings are partly communicated by the emphases and melodies that are called prosody. Vocal and gestural signs can also be the means of transmitting meanings.

2.1.  Pragmatics

Pragmatics is another branch of linguistics that is concerned with meaning. Pragmatics and semantics can be viewed as different parts, or different aspects, of the same general study. Both are concerned with people’s ability to use language system in producing meaningful utterances and processing (comprehending) utterances produced by other, the chief focus of pragmatics is a person ability to derive meaning from specific kinds of speech situations to recognize what the speaker is referring to, to relate new information to what has gone before, to interpret what is said from background knowledge about the speaker and the topic of discourse, and to infer or ‘fill in’ information that the speaker takes for granted and doesn’t bother to say.

Obviously the boundary between semantic and pragmatics is vague, and at the present time various scholars are apt to disagree about where the boundary is. Some of the contents of this chapter may be considered more ‘pragmatics’ than ‘semantics’ by some people.

2.2 . Natural and Conventional Signs

            A language is a system of symbols through which people communicate. The symbols may be spoken, written, or signed with the hands.

            People who use the language to communicate with one another constitute a society, a language community–the English language community, for  instance. Within that the community there are differences in the way different people use the language, chiefly of a geographical or social nature. When people who have the same native language can understand one another but still notice consistent differences in each other’s speech, we say they speak different dialects of that language.

It is easy to illustrate dialects differences : vocabulary differences like petrol versus gasoline, lift versus elevator, alternative ways of framing certain question: Have you a pencil? Versus Do you have a pencil? Versus have you got a pencil ?, for instance. It is extremely difficult to say how many differences there are between dialects or to recognize where ane dialects ends and another begin.

Language is only one of the common activities of a society. The totally of the common activities, institution and beliefs make up the culture of that society. Cultural grouping are not necessarily coterminous with language communities.

In the modern world it is quite the opposite : cultural features are almost always more widespread than anyone language. Native speakers of English belong to the so called Western Culture, which has developed from the Hebrews, Greek and Romans of the ancient world. If it is hard to specify just what constitutes a ‘dialect’, it is equally difficult to specify what is included in one ‘culture’. Our culture includes, for example eating with a fork, and hundreds of other major and minor customs and belief. The point is that communication take place against a large common background.

A language is a complex system of symbols, or signs, that are shared by members of a community. It will be useful to consider other signs that we know and how we react to them.

A footprint is a natural sign. It is the natural result of a foot treading on a soft surface, and it can communicate a message-that the owner of the foot was recently there – to anyone observes it. We are all familiar with other natural signs. We see smoke and know that there is a fire, or fire has just gone out. A black cloud informs us of the possibility of train. Treetops moving tell us that the wind is blowing. Our own bodies provide such signs as earaches and hunger pangs. In other  people we notice and interpret  shivering, perspiration, or a head nodding with drowsiness. All short of sights, sound and smell can be natural signs : they communicate to someone who observes and can interpret but their messages are unintentional, the by – products of various events.

In modern life we are likely to be less concerned with natural signs than with conventional signs, the auditory and visual devices that people have created to send routine message to one another. Day after day we hear such signals because someone intends for us to hear them: horns, whistles, sirens. Buzzer and  bells. The pop of a gun start competitive runners, swimmers, and jockeys on their respective races. In various sports a whistles or buzzer marks the beginning and end of each period of play. Visual signs are just as prevalent and as varied. We have conventional ways of indicating a slippery road, a bicycle path, the location of a telephone, of men’s an women’s lavatories, where there is access for the handicapped, where smoking is prohibited, and so much more. Humans produce not only single symbols but systems of symbols.

Different bugle calls, different bells tones, different number of toots on a whistles or flashes of light can form a repertory of messages. The traffic light found at numerous city street intersection is a good example of a simple system. None of these communications uses language, though of course devising, installing and learning them could not be accomplished by people who had no language.

Unlike natural signs, conventional signs have human senders as well as human receivers; each one has an intention and interpretation. The message may be personal as when a friend rings your telephone or quite impersonal and general, like the warning siren on a speeding ambulance. We can even use devices like smoke detectors and burglar alarms to send messages to ourselves at a letter time, in circumstances that we really do not want to occur.

Observing any such signs and getting information from it seems like a simple matter and can take place in an instans, and yet the process of getting information consist of three steps:

1.      Perception

2.      Identification

3.      Interpretation

1.   Perception

The sign and the observer share a context of place and time in which the sign attract the observer’s attention. Robinson Crusoe, to use our first example, walked where the footprint was, looked in  the right direction, when there was sufficient light for visibility, and before the print had been obliterate by train, wind, tide, or the movement of other creatures.

2.   Identification

Every perception is a unique experience. To say that we ‘recognize’ a phenomenon means that we match it with previous experiences stored in our memory. Almost certainly, if you observe a sign and derive some meaning from it, you must have seen a similar sign before. We identify any new thing either as a phenomenon previously observe or more often, as something that is ‘identical’ with phenomena we already know, a new token of a familiar type. The human mind cannot deal with an infinite number of separate things; we classify an intensity as a new instance of the class of footprints or bushes or sirens or churches. And to identify what something is requires us to recognize what it is not, to discriminate between signs.

3.   Interpretation

Meaning are often personal. The meaning of any sign depends on the space-time context is which we observe it. Crasoe’s reaction to the footprint was due to the circumstances of his life, the fact that until this moment it had been impossible for him to see any human footprint other than his own. This is clearly an unusual case, but all the time we interpret differently in different context.

Conventional sign can have different meanings in different context or different circumstances. The whistles of a policemen directing traffic, the whistles of a hotel doorman summoning a taxi. And the whistles of the referee in a soccer game may all sound exactly the same; their different meanings are due to do the different intentions and are interpreted differently.